Indian Polity & Constitution
🔒 Log in to trackImportant Constitutional Amendments
🔒 Log in to trackProcedure: Article 368 — simple majority for some (outside Art. 368), special majority for most; ratification by half the State legislatures for federal provisions (election of President, extent of executive power, SC/HC, representation of states, 7th Schedule, Art. 368 itself). The basic structure doctrine (Kesavananda Bharati, 1973) limits amendment power.
Important amendments (PYQ bank)
| Am. | Year | What it did |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added 9th Schedule; reasonable restrictions on FRs; Arts. 31A, 31B |
| 7th | 1956 | States reorganisation; abolished A/B/C/D class states |
| 24th | 1971 | Parliament can amend Fundamental Rights |
| 42nd | 1976 | "Mini-Constitution": Socialist-Secular-Integrity in Preamble; Fundamental Duties; education, forests, wildlife to Concurrent List; LS term 5→6 yrs (reverted by 44th) |
| 44th | 1978 | Deleted Right to Property (Art. 300A); "armed rebellion" replaced "internal disturbance" in Art. 352 |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-defection law — Tenth Schedule |
| 61st | 1988 | Voting age 21 → 18 |
| 65th | 1990 | National Commission for SC/ST (Art. 338) |
| 69th | 1991 | Delhi named National Capital Territory; own Assembly |
| 71st | 1992 | Konkani, Manipuri, Nepali added to 8th Schedule |
| 73rd / 74th | 1992 | Constitutional status to Panchayats / Municipalities; 11th & 12th Schedules |
| 86th | 2002 | Art. 21A — Right to Education; 11th Fundamental Duty |
| 89th | 2003 | Separate National Commission for ST (Art. 338A) |
| 91st | 2003 | CoM limited to 15% of House strength |
| 92nd | 2003 | Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali added — 22 languages |
| 97th | 2011 | Co-operative societies; Part IX-B |
| 99th | 2014 | NJAC (struck down in 2015) |
| 100th | 2015 | India–Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement |
| 101st | 2016 | GST; Art. 279A GST Council |
| 102nd | 2018 | Constitutional status to National Commission for Backward Classes (Art. 338B) |
| 103rd | 2019 | 10% EWS reservation (Arts. 15(6), 16(6)) |
| 104th | 2020 | Extended SC/ST reservation in legislatures 10 years; ended Anglo-Indian nominated seats |
| 105th | 2021 | Restored States' power to identify OBCs (Art. 342A) |
| 106th | 2023 | Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam — 1/3rd seats for women in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies (to take effect after delimitation following a census) |
Detailed notes
How the Constitution is amended — Article 368
Amendment power sits in Part XX, Article 368 (borrowed from South Africa). Three routes:
- Simple majority of Parliament (outside Article 368): creating new states, altering state boundaries, citizenship rules, salaries of constitutional functionaries, the Second, Fifth and Sixth Schedules.
- Special majority (Article 368 route): majority of total membership of each House plus two-thirds of members present and voting — used for most amendments, including Fundamental Rights.
- Special majority + ratification by half the state legislatures — for federal provisions: election of the President (54–55), extent of Union/state executive power, Articles 73/162, Supreme Court and High Courts (124–147, 214–231, 241), distribution of legislative power and the Seventh Schedule, representation of states in Parliament, and Article 368 itself.
There is no special convention for joint sittings — a Constitution Amendment Bill never goes to a joint sitting — and the President must give assent (24th Amendment). There is no time limit for state ratification.
The landmarks
| Amendment | What it did |
|---|---|
| 1st, 1951 | Ninth Schedule; Articles 31A/31B; 'reasonable restrictions' on free speech |
| 7th, 1956 | States reorganisation; abolished A/B/C/D state classes; repealed Part VII |
| 24th, 1971 | Parliament can amend any part, including Fundamental Rights |
| 42nd, 1976 | 'Mini-Constitution': socialist, secular, integrity; Fundamental Duties; tribunals; DPSP primacy attempt; LS term extended to 6 years |
| 44th, 1978 | Property deleted from FRs (Article 300A); 'armed rebellion' replaced 'internal disturbance'; emergency approvals tightened; LS term back to 5 years |
| 52nd, 1985 | Anti-defection law (Tenth Schedule) |
| 61st, 1989 | Voting age 21 → 18 (Article 326) |
| 69th, 1991 | Delhi as National Capital Territory |
| 73rd / 74th, 1992 | Panchayats (Part IX, 11th Schedule) and Municipalities (Part IX-A, 12th Schedule) |
| 86th, 2002 | Article 21A (education 6–14); Article 45 rewritten; 11th Fundamental Duty |
| 91st, 2003 | Council of Ministers capped at 15% (min 12); defection bar tightened |
| 92nd, 2003 | Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santhali added to the Eighth Schedule (22 languages) |
| 97th, 2011 | Cooperative societies — new Part IX-B; 'cooperative societies' added to Article 19(1)(c) |
| 99th, 2014 | NJAC — struck down by the Supreme Court (2015) |
| 100th, 2015 | India–Bangladesh Land Boundary Agreement |
| 101st, 2016 | GST (Articles 246A, 269A, 279A — GST Council) |
| 102nd, 2018 | National Commission for Backward Classes given constitutional status (Article 338B) |
| 103rd, 2019 | 10% reservation for EWS (Articles 15(6), 16(6)) |
| 104th, 2020 | Ended Anglo-Indian nomination; extended SC/ST reservation in legislatures |
| 105th, 2021 | Restored states' power to identify SEBCs (OBCs) |
| 106th, 2023 | One-third seats for women in Lok Sabha, state assemblies and Delhi assembly (after delimitation, for 15 years) |
The most recent number to remember: 106 amendments so far (the 106th was enacted in September 2023).
Quick revision
- Three routes: simple majority (outside 368), special majority, special majority + half-state ratification.
- Ratification list = federal items: President's election, SC/HCs, Seventh Schedule, state representation, Article 368.
- 42nd = Mini-Constitution; 44th = property out, 'armed rebellion' in; 52nd = defection; 61st = vote at 18.
- 73/74 = PRI + Municipalities; 86 = 21A + 11th duty; 101 = GST; 103 = EWS 10%; 106 = women's one-third.
- Constitutional Amendment Bills: no joint sitting; President's assent obligatory (24th Amendment).
Types of questions asked
Every way this subtopic shows up in exams — how to recognise it, the formula or logic to use, and a solved example.
Type 1: Amendment procedure and state ratificationvery common3 practice Q
'Which provisions need ratification by half the states', 'what majority amends Fundamental Rights', statement sets on Article 368.
- Special majority = majority of total membership of each House + two-thirds present and voting; Fundamental Rights are amended by this route.
- Ratification (half the state legislatures) is needed only for federal items: President's election, SC/HCs, Seventh Schedule, state representation in Parliament, Union-state executive power, Article 368.
- Simple-majority items (new states, boundaries) sit outside Article 368; a Constitutional Amendment Bill never goes to a joint sitting.
Example: Amendment of which of the following requires ratification by at least half of the state legislatures?
Any change touching federal provisions — e.g. the election of the President, the Seventh Schedule, or the representation of states in Parliament (besides a special majority in Parliament).
Type 2: 42nd and 44th — the twin landmarksvery common2 practice Q
'Which amendment is called the Mini-Constitution', 'which amendment removed the right to property', 'armed rebellion replaced internal disturbance by which amendment'.
- 42nd (1976): socialist/secular/integrity, Fundamental Duties, tribunals, DPSP-primacy line, LS term to 6 years — the 'Mini-Constitution'.
- 44th (1978): property out of Part III (300A), 'armed rebellion' replaces 'internal disturbance', emergency approval window cut to one month, LS term back to 5 years.
- The two travel as a pair — 42nd added, 44th corrected.
Example: The words 'armed rebellion' in Article 352 replaced which earlier expression?
'Internal disturbance' — substituted by the 44th Amendment Act, 1978, to make the emergency ground more specific and serious.
Type 3: Recent amendments (2016–2023)common3 practice Q
'The 101st Amendment deals with', 'the 103rd Amendment provides for', 'the 106th Amendment is about', matching amendments 101–106 to provisions.
- 101st = GST, 102nd = NCBC constitutional status (Art 338B), 103rd = EWS 10% (15(6), 16(6)), 104th = Anglo-Indian nomination ended, 105th = states identify OBCs, 106th = women's one-third reservation.
- 99th (NJAC) was struck down — remember it as the amendment that never survived.
- 100th = India–Bangladesh Land Boundary; 97th = cooperative societies.
Example: The 106th Constitutional Amendment Act (2023) provides for —
One-third reservation of seats for women in the Lok Sabha, state legislative assemblies and the Delhi assembly — to operate after the next delimitation, for 15 years.
Type 4: Older amendments: one-line recallcommon3 practice Q
'Voting age was lowered by which amendment', 'anti-defection law was added by', 'which amendment made Delhi the NCT', 'which amendment added the Ninth Schedule'.
- Numbers ladder: 1st — Ninth Schedule; 7th — states reorganisation; 52nd — defection; 61st — vote at 18; 69th — Delhi NCT.
- 73rd/74th — PRI/Municipalities; 86th — 21A; 91st — 15% ministry cap; 92nd — four languages.
- Pair each number with a one-word hook: 61-eighteen, 69-Delhi, 101-GST.
Example: The voting age in elections to the Lok Sabha and state assemblies was reduced from 21 to 18 years by the —
61st Constitutional Amendment Act, 1989, which amended Article 326.
Shortcut tricks
⚡ Amendment decade clusters
1950s structural (1st, 7th) • 1970s power (24, 42, 44) • 1980s politics (52 anti-defection, 61 voting age) • 1990s grass-roots (73, 74) + language (71, 92) • 2000s rights (86, 91, 97) • 2010s-20s economy-equality (101 GST, 102 OBC, 103 EWS, 104 seats, 105 OBC-identify, 106 women).
Example: Which amendment lowered the voting age from 21 to 18?
The 61st Amendment, 1988 (Art. 326).
⚡ 42 vs 44 tug-of-war
Whatever the 42nd tightened, the 44th loosened: term 6→5 years, 'internal disturbance'→'armed rebellion', property FR→300A legal right.
Example: Which amendment changed the ground for National Emergency from 'internal disturbance' to 'armed rebellion'?
The 44th Amendment, 1978.
Where students lose marks
Attributing EWS (10%) to the 102nd — it is the 103rd; the 102nd made NCBC constitutional.
Assuming the 106th applies at once — it awaits delimitation after a census.
Thinking NJAC still operates — the 99th Amendment was struck down in 2015.
Practice sets — 13 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Each answer comes with a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 13 questions
Suggested time 5 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.