Indian Polity & Constitution
🔒 Log in to trackPanchayati Raj, Municipalities and Emergency
🔒 Log in to trackPanchayati Raj committees (very common PYQ)
| Committee | Year | Recommendation |
|---|---|---|
| Balwant Rai Mehta | 1957 | Three-tier PR system; led to launch at Nagaur, Rajasthan on 2 Oct 1959 (then Andhra Pradesh) |
| Ashok Mehta | 1977 | Two-tier system — Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat; district as first point of decentralisation |
| G.V.K. Rao | 1985 | District the basic unit of planning — District Development Commissioner |
| L.M. Singhvi | 1986 | Constitutional status for PRIs; Nyaya Panchayats |
73rd Amendment (1992) — Panchayats (Part IX, Arts. 243–243O, 11th Schedule)
Three-tier system (two-tier if State population below 20 lakh); Gram Sabha (243A); reservation for SC/ST in proportion and not less than 1/3rd for women (many States have raised it to 50% — Bihar first, 2006); 5-year term; State Election Commission (243K); State Finance Commission every 5 years (243I); 29 subjects in the 11th Schedule.
74th Amendment (1992) — Municipalities (Part IX-A, 12th Schedule)
Nagar Panchayat, Municipal Council, Municipal Corporation; 18 subjects; same reservation pattern; District/Metropolitan Planning Committees (243ZD/243ZE).
Emergency provisions (Part XVIII)
| Type | Article | Key facts |
|---|---|---|
| National | 352 | Proclaimed 3 times — 1962 (China), 1971 (Pakistan), 1975 ("internal disturbance", now "armed rebellion" per 44th Amdt). Approval within 1 month, renewal every 6 months; LS can revoke by simple majority; FRs of Art. 19 auto-suspend (Art. 358); only Arts. 20–21 never suspend (Art. 359) |
| President's Rule | 356 | First used in 1959 (Kerala); imposed over 130 times; 6-month approval, max 3 years (conditions after 1 year per S.R. Bommai case, 1994 — floor test, judicial review) |
| Financial | 360 | Never imposed so far |
Detailed notes
Panchayati Raj — Part IX (73rd Amendment, 1992)
Rural local government became a constitutional tier on 24 April 1993 (now National Panchayati Raj Day). The framework: Gram Sabha (every village, all registered voters) at the base; a three-tier system — village panchayat, intermediate (block) panchayat, Zila Parishad — though states with under 20 lakh population may skip the middle tier. Panchayats serve 5-year terms (dissolved mid-way elections must follow within 6 months). Seats are reserved for SCs/STs in proportion to population and not less than one-third for women (many states now give 50%). A State Election Commission (Article 243K) conducts panchayat elections; a State Finance Commission (Article 243-I) reviews panchayat finances every 5 years. The Eleventh Schedule lists 29 subjects. Roughly one-third of panchayat seats/chairs are reserved for women by the constitutional minimum.
The committee ladder
| Committee | Recommendation |
|---|---|
| Balwant Rai Mehta, 1957 | Three-tier democratic decentralisation ('democratic decentralisation' phrase) |
| Ashok Mehta, 1977 | Two-tier: Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat |
| G.V.K. Rao, 1981 | District as the planning unit; 'grass without roots' remark on PRI paralysis |
| L.M. Singhvi, 1986 | Constitutional status for PRIs; Gram Sabha as the base |
| P.K. Thungon, 1988 | Constitutional recognition; Zila Parishad for planning |
The first panchayat under the 1959 scheme was inaugurated by Nehru at Nagaur, Rajasthan, on 2 October 1959. Remember the mapping: Balwant Rai = three-tier, Ashok Mehta = two-tier, Singhvi = constitutional status.
Municipalities — Part IX-A (74th Amendment, 1992)
In force from 1 June 1993; Article 243P–243ZG; the Twelfth Schedule lists 18 subjects. Three urban bodies: Nagar Panchayat (transitional area), Municipal Council (smaller urban area), Municipal Corporation (larger urban area). The same 5-year term, reservations, State Election Commission and Finance Commission rules apply; wards committees for municipalities with 3 lakh+ population. The 97th Amendment (2011) added Part IX-B on cooperative societies.
Emergency — Part XVIII (Articles 352–360)
- National Emergency (352): grounds are war, external aggression, armed rebellion (the 44th Amendment replaced 'internal disturbance'). Proclamation must be approved by both Houses within one month (44th changed it from 2 months); each approval lasts 6 months, renewable indefinitely by special majority. The Lok Sabha's own term can be extended one year at a time. Article 358 automatically suspends Article 19 (only in war/external-aggression cases); Article 359 lets the President suspend enforcement of other rights by order (Articles 20 and 21 can never be suspended — 44th Amendment).
- President's Rule (356): failure of constitutional machinery in a state; approval within 2 months; lasts 6 months at a time, extendable to 3 years with conditions (annual parliamentary approval after the first year). S.R. Bommai (1994) made proclamations subject to judicial review and barred using Article 356 for partisan ends.
- Financial Emergency (360): threatens financial stability; approval in 2 months; salaries of officials including judges can be reduced; never imposed so far.
Quick revision
- 73rd (24 Apr 1993): Part IX, three tiers, Gram Sabha, 29 subjects (11th Schedule), SEC + SFC every 5 years.
- Committees: Balwant Rai = 3-tier (1957), Ashok Mehta = 2-tier (1977), Singhvi = constitutional status (1986).
- 74th: Part IX-A, 18 subjects (12th Schedule), Nagar Panchayat/Council/Corporation, wards committees (3 lakh+).
- National emergency: 'armed rebellion' (44th), 1-month approval, 6-month renewals; Art 19 auto-suspends (358); 20–21 never suspended.
- President's Rule: 2-month approval, 6-month spells, 3-year ceiling; Bommai (1994) = judicial review.
- Financial Emergency (360) has never been proclaimed.
Types of questions asked
Every way this subtopic shows up in exams — how to recognise it, the formula or logic to use, and a solved example.
Type 1: 73rd Amendment structurevery common3 practice Q
'The Gram Sabha consists of', 'which article provides a State Finance Commission', 'how many subjects in the Eleventh Schedule', statement sets on PRI structure.
- Base = Gram Sabha (all registered voters of the village); tiers = village + intermediate + Zila Parishad (states under 20 lakh may skip the middle tier).
- Terms 5 years; women's reservation one-third minimum; SEC conducts elections (243K); SFC every 5 years — Article 243-I.
- Eleventh Schedule = 29 subjects; effective 24 April 1993 = Panchayati Raj Day.
Example: A State Finance Commission is constituted once in —
Five years under Article 243-I, to review the financial position of panchayats and municipalities and recommend tax-sharing and grants.
Type 2: Committee ↔ recommendationvery common2 practice Q
'Which committee recommended a two-tier system', 'constitutional status for panchayats was recommended by', matching four committees to their ideas.
- Balwant Rai Mehta (1957) = three-tier; Ashok Mehta (1977) = two-tier (Zila Parishad + Mandal Panchayat).
- G.V.K. Rao (1981) = district planning focus; L.M. Singhvi (1986) = constitutional status + Gram Sabha; Thungon (1988) = constitutional recognition, district planning.
- Do not swap the two Mehtas — Balwant = three, Ashok = two.
Example: Which committee recommended a two-tier Panchayati Raj system with Zila Parishad and Mandal Panchayat?
The Ashok Mehta Committee (1977) — it wanted the block tier abolished, leaving Zila Parishad at the top and Mandal Panchayat below.
Type 3: 74th Amendment and urban bodiescommon2 practice Q
'How many subjects in the Twelfth Schedule', 'which body for a transitional area', 'wards committees are required for municipalities above what population'.
- Twelfth Schedule = 18 subjects; Part IX-A; effective 1 June 1993.
- Body map: transitional area → Nagar Panchayat; smaller urban → Municipal Council; larger urban → Municipal Corporation.
- Wards committees mandatory for municipalities with 3 lakh+ population (Article 243S); cooperative societies = Part IX-B (97th Amendment).
Example: For a transitional area, the 74th Amendment provides for a —
Nagar Panchayat; smaller urban areas get Municipal Councils and larger urban areas Municipal Corporations.
Type 4: National Emergency (Article 352)very common3 practice Q
'Armed rebellion replaced internal disturbance — which amendment', 'within how many days/months must Parliament approve', 'which rights cannot be suspended', 358 vs 359 questions.
- Grounds: war, external aggression, armed rebellion (44th Amendment). Proclamation laid before Parliament; approval within one month; 6-month renewals, no ceiling.
- 358: Article 19 stands suspended automatically in war/external aggression — not in armed-rebellion emergencies.
- 359: enforcement of other rights can be suspended by order — but Articles 20 and 21 never (44th Amendment).
Example: Under the 44th Amendment, which Fundamental Rights can never be suspended during an emergency?
Articles 20 and 21 — protection in convictions, and life/personal liberty, stay enforceable no matter what the proclamation covers.
Type 5: President's Rule and Financial Emergencycommon2 practice Q
'Approval period for Article 356', 'maximum duration of President's Rule', 'which case made 356 justiciable', 'has a Financial Emergency ever been imposed'.
- Article 356: approval within 2 months; 6-month spells; ceiling 3 years (with conditions and annual approvals after the first year).
- S.R. Bommai (1994): proclamations are open to judicial review; majority must be tested on the floor of the House.
- Article 360 (Financial Emergency) has never been used; it can cut salaries, including of judges.
Example: The famous case holding that a proclamation under Article 356 is subject to judicial review is —
S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994) — the Court also laid down that a ministry's majority should be tested on the floor of the assembly, not in Raj Bhavan.
Shortcut tricks
⚡ Committee tier-count rhyme
Balwant-3 (1957), Ashok-2 (1977), Rao-district (1985), Singhvi-Constitution (1986). Decade rhyme: 57-77-85-86.
Example: Which committee's report led to the Nagaur (Rajasthan) launch of Panchayati Raj on 2 October 1959?
The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee (three-tier recommendation).
⚡ Emergency digits
352-National (3 proclamations: 62, 71, 75), 356-President's Rule (Kerala 1959 first), 360-Financial (zero uses). Approvals: 1 month + every 6 months.
Example: Which State first faced President's Rule in 1959?
Kerala (the elected E.M.S. Namboodiripad government was dismissed).
Where students lose marks
Saying the 73rd Amendment created the Panchayats in 1959 — the 1959 date is only Rajasthan's launch; constitutional status came in 1992.
Mixing 11th Schedule (29 subjects, panchayats) with 12th (18, municipalities).
Claiming a Financial Emergency was declared in 1991 — Art. 360 has never been used.
Practice sets — 15 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Each answer comes with a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 10 questions
Suggested time 4 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.