Indian Polity & Constitution
🔒 Log in to trackParliament and the Judiciary
🔒 Log in to trackParliament (Articles 79–122)
- Lok Sabha: max 530 state seats (the 2 nominated Anglo-Indian seats ended with the 104th Amendment, 2020); term 5 years. Speaker: elected from among members; casting vote; certifies a Money Bill (Art. 110); presides over joint sittings; pro-tem Speaker appointed by the President to administer oaths. Current Speaker: Om Birla (18th Lok Sabha).
- Rajya Sabha: max 250 (238 elected + 12 nominated by the President — literature, science, art, social service); permanent house, one-third retire every 2 years; Deputy Chairman presides in the House.
- Sessions: Budget (Feb–May), Monsoon (Jul–Sep), Winter (Nov–Dec). Gap between sessions cannot exceed 6 months. Quorum: 1/10th of membership.
- Joint sitting (Art. 108): not for Money Bills or Constitutional Amendment Bills; held only three times — Dowry Prohibition Bill (1961), Banking Service Commission Repeal (1978), POTA (2002).
- Bills: Ordinary, Money, Financial, Constitutional Amendment (Art. 368). Ordinance power — Art. 123 (ordinance lapses 6 weeks after Parliament reassembles).
Key committees
| Committee | Strength | Chairman |
|---|---|---|
| Public Accounts Committee | 22 (15 LS + 7 RS) | By convention from the Opposition; examines CAG reports |
| Estimates Committee | 30 (all Lok Sabha) | From the ruling party |
| Committee on Public Undertakings | 22 (15 LS + 7 RS) | — |
Judiciary
- Supreme Court (Art. 124): sanctioned strength 34 judges; retirement 65 (HC: 62); judges removed by Parliament on "proved misbehaviour or incapacity" via the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 (special majority). Appointments through the collegium (Second Judges case 1993). Current CJI: Justice Surya Kant (53rd CJI, since 24 November 2025).
- Jurisdictions: original (Art. 131), writs (32), appellate (132–136), SLP Art. 136, review (137), advisory (143), law of the land binding (Art. 141), complete justice (142). Court of record: Art. 129.
- High Courts: 25; writ power of HCs (Art. 226) is wider than the SC's — it covers fundamental and other legal rights. Oldest HCs: Calcutta, Bombay, Madras (1862).
Writs
| Writ | Meaning | Against |
|---|---|---|
| Habeas corpus | "Produce the body" — release from illegal detention | State/individual |
| Mandamus | "We command" — perform public duty | Public official |
| Prohibition | Stops a lower court from exceeding jurisdiction | Judicial/quasi-judicial |
| Certiorari | Transfers/quashes an order of a lower court | Judicial/quasi-judicial |
| Quo warranto | "By what authority" — challenges illegal occupation of a public office | Public office holder |
Detailed notes
Parliament — Articles 79 to 122
Parliament = President + Rajya Sabha + Lok Sabha. The Lok Sabha is capped at 552 (530 states + 20 UTs; the two nominated Anglo-Indian seats ended with the 104th Amendment, 2020). The Rajya Sabha is capped at 250 — 238 elected plus 12 nominated (literature, science, art, social service). Rajya Sabha members are elected by MLAs by single transferable vote (Seat allocation: Fourth Schedule); term is 6 years, one-third retiring every two years, and it is a permanent House — never dissolved. Lok Sabha's normal term is 5 years. The minimum age is 25 (Lok Sabha) and 30 (Rajya Sabha). A gap between two sessions cannot exceed 6 months; quorum = one-tenth of the total membership. The Speaker is elected by the Lok Sabha, resigns to the Deputy Speaker, has a casting vote, certifies Money Bills, and presides over joint sittings (in the Speaker's absence, the Deputy Speaker Rajya Sabha's Deputy Chairman steps in). Article 108 provides for joint sittings to break deadlocks on ordinary bills — never for Money Bills or Constitution Amendment Bills; only three joint sittings have been held (Dowry Prohibition Bill 1960, Banking Service Commission (Repeal) Bill 1977, POTA 2002).
Bills and motions
A Money Bill (Article 110) contains only the six listed matters (taxes, borrowing, custody of the Consolidated Fund, etc.). It can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha, only on the President's recommendation, and the Rajya Sabha must return it within 14 days (it can only recommend). The Speaker's certificate is final. Financial Bill-I (Art 117(1)) mixes money and other matters — treat it like an ordinary bill; Financial Bill-II (Art 117(3)) involves expenditure from the CFI but is otherwise ordinary. Motions: no-confidence (Lok Sabha only, 50 members' support), censure, adjournment, calling attention, privilege. Cut motions — policy cut (₹1), economy cut (specified amount), token cut (₹100). Financial committees: Public Accounts Committee — 22 members (15 LS + 7 RS), chairman from the opposition by convention; Estimates Committee — 30 members, all from the Lok Sabha; Public Undertakings — 22.
The Supreme Court — Articles 124 to 147
Sanctioned strength: 34 judges including the CJI. Judges are appointed by the President; since the Second and Third Judges cases the collegium (CJI + senior judges) recommends names; the 99th Amendment's NJAC (2014) was struck down in 2015. Qualifications: citizen + (HC judge for 5 years) or (HC advocate for 10 years) or a distinguished jurist; retirement at 65. Removal: 'proved misbehaviour or incapacity', special majority of both Houses, process governed by the Judges (Inquiry) Act, 1968 (100 Lok Sabha / 50 Rajya Sabha signatures to start). Jurisdiction: original (Article 131 — Centre-state disputes), writ (32), appellate (132–136; Article 136 — special leave to appeal), review (137), advisory (143 — President may refer questions of law/fact), and record (Article 141 — its law binds all courts). Judicial review flows from Article 13; the basic structure doctrine comes from Kesavananda Bharati (1973).
The High Courts and below
Articles 214–231: one HC per state (Parliament may create a common HC). Judges retire at 62; appointed by the President after consultation with the CJI and the Governor. Courts of subordinate jurisdiction are regulated by the states; Lok Adalats (Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987) settle disputes by compromise and their awards are deemed decrees.
Quick revision
- LS max 552, age 25; RS max 250 (12 nominated), age 30, permanent, 6-year terms, STV by MLAs.
- Sessions gap ≤ 6 months; quorum 1/10; Speaker certifies Money Bills; joint sittings: 3, never for Money Bills.
- Money Bill: LS only, President's recommendation, RS 14 days, Speaker's certificate final.
- PAC 22 (15+7, opposition chair); Estimates 30 (all LS, ruling chair by convention).
- SC: 34 judges, retire 65, collegium (99th Amendment struck down 2015); removal = special majority both Houses.
- Jurisdiction map: 131 original, 136 SLP, 137 review, 141 binding, 143 advisory; writs 32/226; HC judge retires 62.
Types of questions asked
Every way this subtopic shows up in exams — how to recognise it, the formula or logic to use, and a solved example.
Type 1: Money Bill and bill proceduresvery common2 practice Q
'A Money Bill can be introduced only in', 'Rajya Sabha must return a Money Bill within', 'whose certificate decides if a bill is a Money Bill', statement sets on bill types.
- Money Bill (Art 110): Lok Sabha only, on the President's recommendation; Rajya Sabha gets 14 days with recommend-only power; the Speaker's certificate is final.
- Joint sitting (Art 108) applies to ordinary (and Financial Bill-I) deadlocks — never to Money Bills or Constitution Amendment Bills.
- The six Money-Bill subjects all concern taxes, borrowing or the Consolidated Fund — check the stem for those words.
Example: The Rajya Sabha must return a Money Bill to the Lok Sabha within —
14 days — it may only make recommendations, which the Lok Sabha is free to accept or reject; the bill then goes to the President.
Type 2: Motions and financial committeescommon2 practice Q
'A no-confidence motion needs the signature of how many members', 'which committee has members only from the Lok Sabha', cut-motion amounts, PAC chairman convention.
- No-confidence: Lok Sabha only, 50 members to admit; if passed, the ministry resigns.
- Committees: Estimates = 30, all Lok Sabha; PAC and Public Undertakings = 22 each (15 + 7); PAC chairman from the opposition by convention.
- Cut motions: policy cut ₹1, economy cut a stated sum, token cut ₹100.
Example: The Estimates Committee of Parliament consists of —
30 members, all drawn from the Lok Sabha (elected by proportional representation); its chairman is appointed by the Speaker from the ruling side.
Type 3: Parliament's structure: numbers, ages, sessionsvery common2 practice Q
'Maximum strength of the Rajya Sabha', 'minimum age for the Lok Sabha', 'nominated members of the Rajya Sabha', 'maximum gap between sessions'.
- Numbers: LS 552 (Anglo-Indian nomination ended by the 104th Amendment, 2020); RS 250 = 238 + 12 nominated.
- Ages: 25 (LS) / 30 (RS); RS term 6 years (one-third retire every 2 years); LS 5 years.
- Sessions: budget, monsoon, winter; the gap between sessions cannot exceed 6 months; quorum = 1/10.
Example: The Rajya Sabha can have at most how many members?
250 — 238 representing states and Union Territories plus 12 nominated by the President for distinction in literature, science, art and social service.
Type 4: Supreme Court: appointment, removal, jurisdictionvery common3 practice Q
'How are SC judges appointed', 'on what ground can a judge be removed', 'which article gives advisory jurisdiction', retirement ages and collegium statements.
- Strength 34 (incl. CJI); appointed by the President on the collegium's recommendation (Second/Third Judges cases); NJAC (99th Amendment) struck down in 2015.
- Removal: 'proved misbehaviour or incapacity', special majority of both Houses, procedure under the Judges (Inquiry) Act 1968 (100 LS / 50 RS members to move).
- Jurisdiction anchors: 131 original, 136 SLP, 137 review, 141 law of the land binding, 143 advisory; retire at 65.
Example: Under which jurisdiction does the Supreme Court answer questions of law referred by the President?
Advisory jurisdiction — Article 143: the President may refer a question of law or fact of public importance; the Court may report its opinion, which is not binding as a judgment.
Type 5: High Courts and Lok Adalatsoccasional2 practice Q
'Retirement age of an HC judge', 'who appoints HC judges', 'Lok Adalat award is equivalent to', common High Court questions.
- HC judges appointed by the President after consultation (CJI + Governor); retire at 62 (SC: 65).
- Article 226 writ power is wider than Article 32 — it covers legal rights too.
- Lok Adalats (Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987): awards are deemed decrees of a civil court, no appeal on merits.
Example: Every Lok Adalat award is deemed to be —
A decree of a civil court and is final; it is binding on the parties, and no appeal lies against it on the merits.
Shortcut tricks
⚡ Committee trio numbers
PAC 22 (opposition chair), CPU 22 (15+7), Estimates 30 (all LS). 'Estimates = 30, exclusively LS.'
Example: Which parliamentary committee examines the CAG's reports?
The Public Accounts Committee (22 members, opposition chairperson by convention).
⚡ Writ first letters
H-M-P-C-Q: Habeas(body), Mandamus(command), Prohibition(stop-before), Certiorari(quash-after), Quo warranto(by what authority). Prohibition stops a case early; certiorari quashes after.
Example: Which writ stops a subordinate court from exceeding jurisdiction before it decides?
Prohibition (certiorari operates after the order is passed).
Where students lose marks
Believing a joint sitting can resolve a Constitutional Amendment Bill — Art. 108 excludes it.
Saying the Rajya Sabha can be dissolved — it is permanent, with one-third retiring every two years.
Assuming the sanctioned SC strength is 31 — it rose to 34 in 2019.
Practice sets — 13 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Each answer comes with a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 13 questions
Suggested time 5 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.