Modern Indian History
🔒 Log in to trackEuropeans in India & British Expansion
🔒 Log in to trackArrival of the Europeans
| Power | Key date | Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Portuguese | 1498 | Vasco da Gama landed near Calicut (Kappad), ruler Zamorin; Albuquerque took Goa (1510) |
| Dutch | 1602 | VOC; Pulicat, Masulipatnam; lost to the English at Bedara (1759) |
| English | 31 Dec 1600 | East India Company charter from Elizabeth I; first permanent factory at Surat (1613) |
| Danish | 1616 | Tranquebar, Serampore |
| French | 1664 | Compagnie des Indes under Colbert; Pondicherry (1674); Dupleix was the key governor |
Decisive battles
| Battle | Year | Result |
|---|---|---|
| Plassey | 23 June 1757 | Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah; Mir Jafar's treachery |
| Wandiwash | 1760 | Eyre Coote defeated the French (Lally) — ended French hopes (3rd Carnatic War) |
| Buxar | 22 Oct 1764 | Hector Munro defeated Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula & Shah Alam II → Treaty of Allahabad (1765): Diwani of Bengal, Bihar & Orissa to the Company |
| Anglo-Mysore wars | 1767–1799 | Four wars; Tipu Sultan killed at Srirangapatna (1799) |
| Anglo-Maratha wars | 1775–1818 | 1st ended by Treaty of Salbai (1782); 3rd war ended Peshwa rule |
| Anglo-Sikh wars | 1845–49 | Punjab annexed (1849) |
Governors-General & Viceroys — one fact each
| Name | Remember for |
|---|---|
| Warren Hastings | First Governor-General of Bengal (Regulating Act 1773); Asiatic Society of Bengal (1784, founded by William Jones) |
| Cornwallis | Permanent Settlement (1793); "father of the civil services" |
| Wellesley | Subsidiary Alliance (1798); Hyderabad first to sign |
| William Bentinck | First Governor-General of India (Charter Act 1833); abolished sati (1829); English Education Act 1835 (Macaulay) |
| Dalhousie | First railway Bombay–Thane (16 April 1853), telegraph, Wood's Despatch (1854) |
| Canning | Last Governor-General & first Viceroy (1858) |
| Lytton | Delhi Durbar 1877; Vernacular Press Act 1878 |
| Ripon | "Father of local self-government" (1882); Ilbert Bill (1883); first synchronous census 1881 |
| Dufferin | INC founded (1885) |
| Curzon | Partition of Bengal (1905); Ancient Monuments Preservation Act (1904) |
| Hardinge II | Capital shift to Delhi and annulment of partition announced (1911) |
| Mountbatten | Last Viceroy; first Governor-General of independent India; C. Rajagopalachari was the last (and only Indian) Governor-General |
Detailed notes
From traders to rulers
The East India Company got its charter in 1600 and its first factory at Surat (1612, after the naval win over the Portuguese). It then built three presidencies: Madras (1639), Bombay (1668, from Charles II's dowry) and Calcutta (1690, Job Charnock). After beating the French (Dupleix) in the Carnatic wars, the Company turned on Bengal: at Plassey (1757) Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah through Mir Jafar's betrayal; at Buxar (1764) it defeated the combined armies of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Emperor Shah Alam II. The Treaty of Allahabad (1765) gave the Company the Diwani (revenue rights) of Bengal-Bihar-Odisha; Clive's 'dual government' (1765–72) was ended by Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General under the Regulating Act 1773 (Pitt's India Act 1784 added dual control).
Wars that made the empire
- Mysore: four wars against Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan; Tipu — the 'Tiger of Mysore' — died defending Srirangapatna in 1799 (Fourth war, Wellesley).
- Marathas: three Anglo-Maratha wars ended Maratha power (1818).
- Sikhs: two wars after Ranjit Singh's death (1839) — Punjab annexed 1849 (Dalhousie).
- Others: Sind (1843, Napier), Burma, Awadh annexed 1856 'for misgovernment'.
- Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley, Nizam first in 1798): the ally kept Company troops and lost independence; Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie): adopted heirs refused — Satara, Jaitpur, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Jhansi, Nagpur lapsed.
Governor-Generals' landmarks
Cornwallis (1786–93): Permanent Settlement (1793), police and judicial reforms, 'father of the Indian civil service'. William Bentinck (1828–35): sati abolished (1829), English education (Macaulay's Minute 1835), thuggee suppressed. Dalhousie (1848–56): railways (1853), telegraph, postage, engineering colleges — the infrastructure age plus annexations. Lytton: Vernacular Press Act (1878), Arms Act, and the Delhi Durbar of 1877 proclaiming Victoria 'Empress of India'.
The three land-revenue systems
| System | Region | Key feature |
|---|---|---|
| Permanent Settlement (1793) | Bengal-Bihar-Odisha | Zamindars fixed as landowners; revenue fixed forever (Cornwallis) |
| Ryotwari | Madras, Bombay | Settlement directly with the ryot (cultivator); Reed & Thomas Munro |
| Mahalwari | North-Western Provinces, Central India, parts of Punjab | Settlement with the village estate (mahal); Holt Mackenzie, 1822 |
Quick revision
- Plassey 1757 (Mir Jafar) → Buxar 1764 (triple alliance beaten) → Diwani 1765 (Treaty of Allahabad).
- Tipu died 1799 at Srirangapatna; Marathas ended 1818; Punjab 1849.
- Wellesley = Subsidiary Alliance; Dalhousie = Doctrine of Lapse + railways; Lytton = Vernacular Press Act 1878.
- Revenue trio: Permanent (Cornwallis, zamindari), Ryotwari (Munro, ryot), Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie, village).
Types of questions asked
Every way this subtopic shows up in exams — how to recognise it, the formula or logic to use, and a solved example.
Type 1: Company victories: Plassey → Buxar → Diwani chainvery common2 practice Q
'Who was defeated at Buxar', what the Treaty of Allahabad granted, Mir Jafar's role, order of events 1757-1765.
- Plassey 1757 = Clive vs Siraj-ud-Daulah (Mir Jafar betrayed); Buxar 1764 = vs Mir Qasim + Shuja-ud-Daula + Shah Alam II.
- Treaty of Allahabad 1765 = Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, Odisha to the Company.
- Diwani means revenue-collection rights — not territory ownership.
Example: The Battle of Buxar (1764) was fought against a combined army of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and —
Emperor Shah Alam II — after which the Treaty of Allahabad granted the Company the Diwani.
Type 2: Anglo wars: Mysore, Maratha, Sikhvery common2 practice Q
'Tipu Sultan died in which battle/war', which war ended Maratha power, year of Punjab's annexation.
- Mysore: four wars; Tipu died at Srirangapatna, 1799 (Fourth war).
- Marathas: three wars; power ended 1818.
- Sikhs: two wars; Punjab annexed 1849 (Dalhousie).
Example: Tipu Sultan was killed in 1799 at —
Srirangapatna, during the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War.
Type 3: Governor-General ↔ policy and landmark measurevery common2 practice Q
'Sati was abolished by', Vernacular Press Act, Doctrine of Lapse, railways, English education — who did what.
- Cornwallis = Permanent Settlement; Bentinck = sati (1829) + English education; Dalhousie = Lapse + railways; Wellesley = Subsidiary Alliance; Lytton = Vernacular Press Act 1878.
- Read 'Governor-General of Bengal (1772-93)' vs 'of India (from 1833)' carefully — the title changed.
- In NOT-pair questions, the mismatched one usually swaps a measure between two neighbours.
Example: The Vernacular Press Act (1878) was passed by —
Lord Lytton — it gagged Indian-language newspapers (repealed by Ripon in 1882).
Type 4: Land-revenue systems: zamindari, ryotwari, mahalwaricommon2 practice Q
'The Ryotwari system was introduced by', which region had Mahalwari, Permanent Settlement features.
- Permanent Settlement 1793 (Cornwallis) — Bengal-Bihar-Odisha, zamindari, revenue fixed.
- Ryotwari (Reed & Thomas Munro) — Madras and Bombay; settlement with each cultivator.
- Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie, 1822) — NW Provinces, Central India, parts of Punjab; village estate (mahal).
Example: The Ryotwari system, settling revenue directly with each cultivator, was developed mainly in —
Madras and Bombay presidencies, associated with Reed and Thomas Munro.
Shortcut tricks
⚡ Plassey then Buxar — "57 buys, 64 seals"
1757 Plassey gave the British a foothold (Clive vs Siraj); 1764 Buxar sealed control (three Indian rulers beaten) and brought the Diwani (1765).
Example: Which battle was fought against the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daula and Shah Alam II?
Three rulers together → Buxar (1764).
⚡ Governor-General reforms — "Cornwallis Settles, Wellesley Subsidises, Bentinck bans Sati, Ripon Rules locally"
Permanent Settlement 1793 → Subsidiary Alliance 1798 → Sati abolition 1829 → Local self-government 1882.
Where students lose marks
Warren Hastings = first GG of Bengal; William Bentinck = first GG of India; Canning = first Viceroy.
Ilbert Bill is Ripon's era, not Curzon's.
The English first factory was at Surat; Calicut is linked with Vasco da Gama.
Practice sets — 13 questions
Sets of 10, mixed across the question types above. Each answer comes with a step-by-step explanation.
Topic test · 13 questions
Suggested time 5 min · wrong answers go to your mistake notebook automatically.