Ancient Indian History

Two halves of one age

The Vedic age (c. 1500–600 BCE) is named after the Vedas, our main source. It has two phases.

• Early (Rigvedic) Vedic, c. 1500–1000 BCE: people lived in the Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers — Punjab and beyond). Life was pastoral; cattle were the main wealth, and the word for war (gavishthi, 'search for cows') shows it. Pottery: ochre-coloured and then plain grey.
• Later Vedic, c. 1000–600 BCE: people moved into the Ganga–Yamuna doab. Iron (shyama ayas / krishna ayas, 'dark metal') appears and agriculture expands. Pottery: Painted Grey Ware (PGW). Kingdoms replace tribes, and the varna system hardens.

The four Vedas

Veda	Content	Reciting priest
Rigveda	Oldest; 10 mandalas, 1028 hymns	Hotri
Samaveda	Rigvedic hymns set to melody — root of Indian music	Udgatri
Yajurveda	Sacrificial formulas (prose + verse)	Adhvaryu
Atharvaveda	Charms, spells, folk medicine	Brahma

The Rigveda is the oldest text of the Indo-European world still in use as scripture. Each Veda has attached texts: the Brahmanas (ritual prose — Aitareya with the Rigveda, Shatapatha with the Yajurveda), then Aranyakas (forest teachings) and finally the Upanishads (philosophy, also called Vedanta). The six limbs of the Vedas (Vedangas) are Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chhanda and Jyotisha.

Rigveda anchors

Exams love four mandalas: III, VII, IX, X.

• Mandala III — the Gayatri Mantra, addressed to Savitri, composed by Vishwamitra.
• Mandala VII — the Battle of Ten Kings (Dasarajna) on the river Parushni (Ravi); Sudas, chief of the Bharatas, won.
• Mandala IX — entirely devoted to Soma.
• Mandala X — the Purusha Sukta, which first mentions the four varnas (Brahmin from the mouth, Kshatriya from arms, Vaishya from thighs, Shudra from feet).

Indra is praised in the most hymns (about 250; Purandara, 'fort-breaker'), then Agni (about 200), the messenger god; Varuna upholds rita, the cosmic order. The Sindhu is the most-mentioned river, but the Saraswati is called the holiest (naditama).

Rivers: Rigvedic names ↔ modern names

Rigvedic	Modern	Rigvedic	Modern
Vitasta	Jhelum	Vipas	Beas
Asikni	Chenab	Sutudri	Sutlej
Parushni	Ravi	Kubha	Kabul
Drishadvati	Ghaggar–Chautang	Krumu	Kurram

Early vs Later Vedic society and polity

Point	Early Vedic	Later Vedic
Region	Sapta Sindhu	Ganga–Yamuna doab
Economy	Pastoral, cattle wealth	Agriculture, iron
Women's status	Comparatively better (Sabha open to women; poetesses like Lopamudra, Apala)	Declines; child marriage appears
Assemblies	Sabha, Samiti, Vidatha (all active)	Sabha & Samiti lose power to the king
Officers	Rajan, Purohita, Senani, Gramani	Add Bhagadugha (tax collector), Sangrahitri (treasurer)
Tax	Bali — voluntary tribute	Bali becomes a regular tax
Varna	Flexible	Rigid; gotra exogamy rule

Later Vedic kings performed grand sacrifices to show power: Rajasuya (consecration), Ashvamedha (horse released to claim supremacy), Vajapeya (chariot race). The four ashramas (Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha, Sanyasa) are all first listed together in the Jabala Upanishad.

Upanishads and the six schools (Shad-darshana)

Upanishad	Remember for
Mundaka	Source of the national motto 'Satyameva Jayate'
Katha	Dialogue of Nachiketa with Yama
Brihadaranyaka	Oldest and largest; Yajnavalkya–Gargi debate
Chandogya	Early mention of Krishna, son of Devaki

The six orthodox schools with founders: Sankhya–Kapila, Yoga–Patanjali, Nyaya–Gautama (Akshapada), Vaisheshika–Kanada, Purva Mimamsa–Jaimini, Uttara Mimamsa (Vedanta)–Badarayana.

Quick revision

• Early Vedic = pastoral, Sapta Sindhu, flexible society; Later Vedic = iron + agriculture, doab, PGW, rigid varna.
• Veda-priest pairs: Rig-Hotri, Sama-Udgatri, Yajur-Adhvaryu, Atharva-Brahma.
• Mandalas: 3 Gayatri, 7 Ten Kings, 9 Soma, 10 Purusha Sukta.
• Rivers: Vitasta-Jhelum, Asikni-Chenab, Parushni-Ravi, Vipas-Beas, Sutudri-Sutlej.
• 'Satyameva Jayate' — Mundaka Upanishad. Oldest Upanishad — Brihadaranyaka.
• Darshana founders: Kapila, Patanjali, Gautama, Kanada, Jaimini, Badarayana.